So what exactly is “kyōsei” and is it useful as a concept for comparison with other contexts? Unfortunately (and perhaps this is its strength), there is no “exactly” about it and in typical Japanese fashion it is a vague and somewhat ambiguous term that has its roots in Confucianism, Shintoism and Buddhism, which for some critics renders it a meaningless concept of no practical value. However, its very vagueness and stubborn refusal to be contained within a tidy definition allows it to be appropriated in many diverse areas.